Importantly, human error is not automatically tied to accidents or negative outcomes. Indeed, the same mistake, occurring under different conditions, may lead to entirely different results. Furthermore, an error may itself stem from other underlying contributing factors, which highlights the importance of Ergonomic Design when shaping safer systems.
Despite this, human error is commonly examined only after an incident has taken place, because it is during post-event investigations that specific mistakes become identifiable. Consequently, when human error is labeled as the primary cause of accidents, quality breakdowns, or unintended results, it often suggests that human weakness or individual mistakes are solely to blame. This perspective, in turn, assigns responsibility to the person and assumes that stricter oversight, tighter regulations, more extensive training, and more robust systems will minimize errors. Yet, without integrating principles of Ergonomic Design, such measures often fail to address deeper systemic issues.
Figure 1. Human error classification
However, this interpretation oversimplifies the true nature of the issue. In reality, human error is more accurately viewed as a sign or consequence of deeper systemic shortcomings rather than a simple behavioral category. In fact, mistakes arise from intricate interactions between people and their working environments, which include physical, technological, managerial, organizational, cognitive, and psychological elements. Therefore, addressing human error in isolation overlooks these contextual influences and reinforces the need for Ergonomic Design as a foundational approach.
Causes and Models of Human Error
Traditional classifications of human error often fail to reflect the specific psychological and decision-making processes involved. According to research, numerous contributing factors exist, such as inadequate procedures, poor hazard recognition, insufficient training, flawed design and lack of ergonomic evaluation, excessive workload, fatigue and stress, unclear responsibilities, and perceptual or cognitive distortions. Many of these factors can be mitigated through thoughtful Ergonomic Design that anticipates human limitations.
Moreover, human error is always part of a chain of events. Whether it becomes significant, however, depends on how that chain progresses and what outcome it produces. This understanding gained traction in the 1970s, especially after the 1979 Three Mile Island nuclear power plant incident in Pennsylvania. During the investigation, it became clear that the event was not merely the result of operator mistakes, but of interactions between poorly designed displays, insufficient training, and mechanical malfunctions. As a result, the accident demonstrated that failures are typically systemic rather than exclusively human, reinforcing the necessity of Ergonomic Design in complex systems.
Additionally, the Swiss Cheese Model (SCM) of human error further clarifies this idea. According to Reason, failures occur across several layers: unsafe actions, conditions that predispose unsafe actions, supervisory shortcomings, and organizational influences. Collectively, each layer adds to the system’s overall vulnerability, and each layer can be strengthened through Ergonomic Design strategies.
From Human Factors to Ergonomics
Analyses grounded in established human error models consistently reveal that accidents rarely stem from a single mistake. Instead, they arise from sequences of failures involving multiple elements and often several individuals. At the core, many of these breakdowns reflect insufficient attention to human factors and ergonomics at both micro and macro levels. This is precisely where Ergonomic Design becomes essential, ensuring that systems support human performance rather than undermine it.
System failures occur because of how system components – both technical and human – interact and fit together. Consequently, this understanding naturally leads to ergonomics theory, which focuses on optimizing these interactions to enhance performance, safety, and well-being. Ergonomic Design serves as the practical bridge between theory and real-world application.
Origins and Definitions of Ergonomics
Ergonomics highlights the essential role of humans within systems. Although the term is relatively modern, interest in the relationship between people, tools, and environments dates back to ancient Greece. The word ergonomics comes from the Greek terms ergo (work) and nomos (laws).
Ergonomics is the scientific study of how well systems and products fit human capabilities, aiming to reduce fatigue and discomfort through effective design. When tools and environments are adapted to users – whether in workplaces, schools, or homes – the results include improved comfort, higher productivity, and reduced stress. To achieve this, ergonomics draws on knowledge of body measurements, posture, repetitive movements, and workspace configuration to meet user needs. These principles form the foundation of Ergonomic Design.
Figure 2. The areas of ergonomics
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Modern ergonomics emerged during World War II, particularly in the United Kingdom, where specialists in anatomy, physiology, psychology, medicine, and engineering collaborated to enhance human performance. Similarly, developments occurred across Europe and North America, where the related field of human factors also evolved. Over time, these disciplines merged into what is now known as Human Factors and Ergonomics (HFE), formally recognized in the late 1940s, and increasingly associated with Ergonomic Design as a professional practice.
Ergonomics Methods and System Design
HFE offers dependable and validated methods for analyzing and designing tasks performed by people. When applied effectively, these approaches can reduce error frequency, shorten learning curves, enhance performance, and increase user satisfaction. Ergonomic methodologies encompass physical, psychophysical, social, and psychological techniques, as well as ergonomics audits and computer-based modeling tools. All of these methods contribute directly to high-quality Ergonomic Design.
Figure 3. Process for Applying HFE Methods and Data for the Reduction of Human Errors (source – digitalcommons.unl.edu)
Physical ergonomics focuses on body measurements, energy use, and muscular effort. Meanwhile, psychophysical methods examine physiological signals of mental activity. In addition, social and organizational ergonomics address teamwork, macroergonomics, and sociotechnical systems. Together, these domains inform comprehensive Ergonomic Design.
Ergonomics is formally defined as the scientific field dedicated to understanding interactions between humans and other system components, and the profession that applies this knowledge to improve well-being and overall system performance. This definition aligns closely with the goals of Ergonomic Design.
Key Principles of Ergonomic Design
Ergonomic Design recognizes that although people must adapt to technology, technology should also be shaped around human needs. Thus, its main objectives are comfort, usability, safety, and injury prevention. Core principles include designing for user size, strength, perception, ease of control, compatibility between human responses and system behavior, and overall user comfort.
These principles apply to workstations, office layouts, display systems, and tools. Moreover, measurable ergonomic assessments – often based on biomechanical data – enable designers to compare workstation effectiveness and address discomfort, especially in computer-based settings. These assessments are central to effective Ergonomic Design.
Ergonomics in Practice and System Performance
Ergonomics aims to ensure an optimal match between people and the systems they interact with. Because humans differ greatly in size, strength, and cognitive abilities, systems must be designed to accommodate these variations. Otherwise, poor ergonomic design can cause discomfort, accidents, and health issues, while well-applied Ergonomic Design enhances safety, well-being, and productivity.
Indicators of ergonomic deficiencies include difficulty viewing displays, reaching controls, maintaining comfortable postures, handling excessive information, or sustaining attention. Therefore, considering Ergonomic Design early in the development process is essential, and involving workers in design decisions significantly improves results.
Human-Centred Design and User Participation
Human-Centred Design (HCD) expands on ergonomics by emphasizing the quality of interaction between users and systems. To accomplish this, it relies on structured, evidence-based methods to understand user needs, expectations, and behaviors. HCD is empirical, iterative, participatory, non-Procrustean, systems-oriented, and pragmatic. These characteristics align naturally with Ergonomic Design.
Figure 4. Interdependence of the activities in the human-centred design process (source – flore.unifi.it)
The approach prioritizes adapting products to users rather than forcing users to adapt to products. Consequently, it accounts for human diversity, task-specific requirements, and broader sociotechnical environments. Through iterative cycles of design, evaluation, and refinement, HCD ensures ongoing improvement and strengthens Ergonomic Design outcomes.
The Ergonomics–Design Relationship
The connection between ergonomics and design is rooted in Human-Centred Design. Both disciplines, therefore, aim to enhance effectiveness, efficiency, user satisfaction, accessibility, sustainability, and safety. According to ISO standards, human-centred design applies ergonomic principles to mitigate negative effects of system use on health and performance. This integration is at the heart of Ergonomic Design.
Ergonomics spans physical, cognitive, and organizational domains. Physical ergonomics focuses on anatomy and biomechanics; cognitive ergonomics examines mental processes such as perception and decision-making; and organizational ergonomics optimizes sociotechnical systems, including communication, teamwork, and work structure. Together, these domains form the backbone of comprehensive Ergonomic Design.
